North America

rred to relate to the geography of fisheries, forestry, mining, commerce, agriculture, etc. In discussing each of these themes, the control exerted by natural

a view of political adjustments not usually taken and in a way perhaps pessimistical, which may awaken opposition, and also because it contains a summary of the results of a long series of struggles among various nations for the possession of the North American continent. Of greater moment than the rivalries of nations for territory, as is also outlined, is the conflict between two radically different principles of govern

re the territorial limits of nations. For this reason the characteristics of boundaries a

ATION OF

ified, at least provisionally, in six groups. We may term these groups coast boundaries, astronomi

ion of a country bordering on the "high seas" is a line one marine league seaward from the margin of the land, and following its meanders. As an international dividing line the one-league limit seldom, if ever, becomes important, since the nice adjustment of the width of an arm of the s

y astronomers, and if the monuments or other marks employed to show the positions of such lines are removed they can be accurately relocated. The lines referred to are prin

by the boundary between Canada and the continental portion of the United States from near the Lake of the Woods westward to the coast of the continent, which, as finally decided in a treaty between Great Britain and the United States in 1846, is the forty-ninth parallel of

ey pass. They can be located with precision and their courses accurately marked by monuments. For these reasons astronomical boundaries, when clearly de

coast-lines, etc. They may divide a fruitful valley in a most arbitrary and inconvenient manner between two nations with widely different laws and customs, or cross a navigable river at several localities, and intersect a coast or lake shore so as to initiate complex conditions in respect to harbours, navigation, customs duties, etc. In these and still other ways boundaries coinciding with lines of latitude and longitude are apt to bring about detrimental commercial and other relatio

ution of governmen

illed geodesists, it cannot be located even approximately by miners, trappers, f

dent that its far-reaching and perhaps highly complex influences on the development of neighbouring peoples are likely to be such that the natural resou

ce between nations and states; collectively, such boundaries, typically represented by a river without islands, flowing between well-defined and permanent banks, may conveniently be termed water boundarie

e of the St. Lawrence River, and divides medially several of the Great Lakes and their connecting streams. The south boundary of the United States is

part, the middle line of the Hudson and of New York Bay, etc., with several qualifications, including exclusive jurisdiction by New York over all the waters of the Hudson to the west of Manhattan Island to the low-water line on the New Jersey shore, subject, however, to certain rights of property and of jurisdiction of the State of New Jersey, etc

ns inexperienced in the method of surveying. Coinciding, as they generally do, with definite geographical divisions, they do

as a boundary, the question as to which of two channels is really the larger or the deeper may not permit of definite answer. Streams are subject to many changes, and what is the main channel one year may become of secondary rank the next year, or a river, as not infrequently happens, may shift its course bodily, and thus furnish grounds for contention as to the ownership of the territory transferred from one of its banks to the other. The distributaries of streams,

ownership of certain islands in the Strait of Georgia; the immediate subject of contention being whether "the channel which separates the continent from Vancouvers Island," as the statement reads in the Webster-Ashburton treaty, 1846, passes to the east or to the west of t

jectionable. The difference lies in the nature of the streams themselves, and illustrates the fact that, with water boundaries as with other classes of dividing lines betwee

p crest-lines, are in reality broad plateaus or great domes, deeply dissected by stream erosion. In such instances it is frequently difficult to decide where the crest of the range is located. Indeed, as is not infrequently the case, there is no definite and tangible crest-line. Although it is sometimes assumed that the crest-line coincides with the water-parting, or the divide, between the head branches of streams flowing in oppo

wing to the Atlantic and those discharging into the Pacific. Post-treaty surveys, as they may suggestively be termed, have shown that in the portion of the Andes in question streams rising well to th

direction or another according to the strength and other qualifying conditions of the opposite-flowing streams. Then, too, an uplift which seems to a casual observer to be a single mountain range, may in reality be highly complex, and no continuous crest-line be discoverable. In short, the sweeping statemen

even by persons unskilled in the art of surveying, and for this and other reasons has much to commend it; yet, without an accurate knowledge, and most of all an accurate topographic map of the region t

ty. Then, too, the process of head-water corrasion pertaining to essentially all streams, and of stream capture, or the acquiring by one stream, through the process o

and serves its purpose well; but the satisfaction it has given is to be qualified by the fact that, for the most part, it is situated in a

in commendable features in common; they are easily located, readily defined by natural features of the earth's surface, and in general

aries, the ones here considered are imaginary lines, and, in part, might with propriety be included in that class, since they are capable of being located by astronomical methods; but they serve our purpose better if considered in a group by themselves. The class of boundaries here referred to includes straight lines connecting two points; l

t of the District of Columbia, a rectangle 10 miles square was chosen and marked on the ground by means of monuments as the site of the capital of the United States. Another illustration is furnished by the eastern boundary of California, as defined in its constitutio

of straight lines, not of great length, or small geometrical figures, are difficult of precise location, even by ski

s the one hundred and third meridian of west longitude, but owing to errors in the first survey was wrongly marked on the ground by monuments. The monuments, however, having been accepted as indicat

effort is made to adjust them to the natural conditions of the immediate territory they traverse; but, for the purpose of expressing a still greater weakness inherent in them, they are here specially designated as impracticable boundaries. This, as is to be hoped, temporary cl

stance of 10 marine leagues therefrom." The region through which the line described would pass, if surveyed, was almost entirely unknown at the time the treaty referred to was made, but, as has since been discovered, it is exceedingly rugged, and contains many mountains ranging from 10,000 to 18,000 feet high, besides a multitude of glaciers and many extensive fields of perpetual snow. To survey and mark on the ground the boundary indicated in the tr

Characterist

mage to

shire, which is a line parallel to the Merrimac River, and distant from it 3 miles on the north. In this case, although the distance of the line designated from the one to which it is to be drawn parallel is

he desirability of accurate geographical knowledge, and still more of an adequate appreciation of the difficulties

ter several subsequent adjustments, was determined as indicated roughly on the accompanying map. Throughout

e north and south from Ause Sableu on the said coast to the fifty-second degree of north latitude, and all the islands adjacent to that part of the said coast of Labrador." This line is still unsurveyed. From the fift

y for some 900 miles, namely, the middle of the Rio Grande, or its deepest channel, when there is more than one, to where the river crosses

of Mexico, the republics of Central America, etc., are indicated approximately on the accompanying map. These lines

ICAL

ction and final disappearance of Spanish and French dominion from the continental mainland. The broad, indefinite territory once belonging to Spain, which in the sixteenth century seemed destined to expand still more and possibly embrace the whole of the two Americas, has been diminished from time to time, until as a result of the recent Spanish-American War her flag no longer waves over any portion of the New World. The French territory,

anadian boundary, together with Alaska, Cuba, San Domingo and Haiti, and Porto Rico. The provinces, islands, etc., still controlled by European powers are Canada, Newfoundland, Bermuda, and all of the West Indies except the islands just referred to, which are more definitely designated in the table on page 424. The population of the American republics is in the neighbourhood of 97,000,000, and of the European dependencies somewhat less than 7,000,000.

ese, since about 1870, have arrived in large numbers, but their immigration to the United States is now restricted. Of the nations of Europe, the strongest influx has come from Great Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. To a marked degree this westward migration has been along parallels of latitude, but the migratory streams

lands. To the south of the United-States-Mexican boundary, but beginning in the southwestern portion of the United States, and including also the greater part of the population of the West Indies,

forests, mines, fisheries, etc. More than this, even if all material wants are supplied from within its own border, intellectual desires demand outside stimuli. The ideal nation should therefore touch the ocean, in order to have avenues for travel open to its peop

ines are entirely arbitrary, so far as relation to soil, climate, mineral and timber resources, fisheries, etc., are concerned. The line separating Alaska and Canada is mainly a meridian of longitude, which passes through a rich mining district. The southern boundary of Canada is for the most part a parallel of latitude dividing agricultural, mining, and timber lands. The material advancement of the inhabitants on the opposite sides of these unnatural dividing lines is retarded by them and

ntellectual decline, is sadly illustrated by the subdivision of the West Indies. In an admirable account of the Caribbean region by R. T. Hill, in whic

e island of St. Martin, not as large as an average county in the United States, is divided into two principalities, the French and the Dutch, each of which maintains an administrative force as large as that of the State of Texas. Then, as we sail down the eastern islands, hardly a score in number, and within sight of one another, aggregating in area less than our little State of Delaware, about 2,000 square miles, we find five foreign and no less than a dozen distinc

a should be the shore boundary, except at the 30-mile-wide Isthmus of Panama. To the geographer North America presents an example of a region containing within itself essentially all of the elements necessary to a high industrial, social, educational, and ethical development of its inhabitants. The industrial needs are met by a range of products, whether of soils, mines, forests, or fisheries, as varied or nearly so as is presented by the entire earth. Although the continent is broadest at the far north, where climatic extremes prohibit a dense population, yet in the temperate region,

litical subdivisions during the year 1900, is indicated, as nearly as

OF NORTH AM

a in square mil

an Gov

of Alaska and Porto Ric

67,005 1

[8] 63,40

[9] 7,22

a 49,200

10] 45,25

a[11] 23,

ent of Colombia

o[13] 20,5

3] 9,24

,000 1,

- -

n governments 4,6

ll held by Euro

f Great Britain

,653,946

and Labrador

da 19

mas, Jamaica, etc

onduras 7

- -

ited Kingdom 3,7

an

nd St. Pie

loupe, Martinique,

- -

France 1,1

nm

mas, St. John, and S

ll

in in part, St. Eusta

- -

an governments 3

=== =

America 8,412,

of Porto Rico is 3,600 square miles; its population (1899), 953,243. Hawaii, n

In

In

In 1

In 1

In 1

ing the island Sant

ERA

us of the Un

ors. Published by Kegan Paul, Tr

Canada and Newfoundland, by S. E. Dawson. Vol. ii, The United States,

the other West India Islands. Th

. United States Geological Survey, Bulletin

N

ines,

Wash., hei

tains, brief ac

d for bri

12, 21. Work of, in

opulation of, 424.

ography o

ns of

coast

mercial Co

Sound, ori

ands, topogr

rief account

ef account

an syst

A., cited,

flora,

nments, enumer

life, 2

nal val

ains, brief acc

the aborigi

ite,

ns, description of,

period,

Maya hou

matic prov

c life r

rious gover

au, brief acco

os, 34

l boundarie

in, 62-64. Forest, b

ns, 60,

atic provinc

rders o

dvancemen

ief account

nds, topogr

Wash., hei

N. B., he

orge, refere

s, absence of

tt Dee

t compl

ndy, tide

Pola

account of,

explorat

a and popula

a Mount

ea, dept

ief account

f Californi

rations,

f account o

of, 275-278. Map sh

ndians, lod

s of Dakot

rovince, 201-203.

., Mo., he

lassification

s, area and pop

on Dee

ief account

, 225

a, bounda

system,

pulation of, 424. B

of Western

f Indians b

Ranges, 168. Ro

Hatteras, continenta

epth of wat

n, tide

, N. M., hei

rundu

, submarine topo

ief account

account of, 147-158. Ig

canaden

ite, 3

f account

in Pacific

nations, 424. Of

ica, Indians

, T. C., c

lime secre

ological hi

ake, Wash

Bay, orig

saw pl

inds, 115

daries, 408-418. Geolo

ys,

214. Elements

provinces

38. Fields,

plains

es, 409. Mount

phy of,

River lav

l geology

lings of Indi

f mineral subst

rainage, exa

ines with foreign

description of, 8

, cited, 26

nental shelf, 6. Reefs

ndum

rea and popul

brief account of, 1

W., cit

opulation of, 42

the aborigi

s, ocea

es, 20

sses,

, cited, 36

D., cit

. M., ci

J. W., c

lley, Ca

ng continent

the West In

f account

ary of, 416. Ba

merged cha

as,

possessio

es,

., cited, 15

, brief acco

undaries,

Eskim

er-valleys,

., cited, 13

geology

Tex., brief acc

do, brief accou

a mari

Bay, Alaska,

g of the word,

of the t

count of, 365-376

ries,

al studies

tion, 2

Atlantic coas

ns,

n Pacific f

, 215

inental shelf

W. M., c

y of India

ption of, 217-2

flora

sessions of

ng animal

destruction of,

the India

atural

Penins

stribution of a

gy, 2

K., cited, 1

ount of, 314-316. Extent

, Wash., hei

sand

referenc

351-352. Mounta

palace, Uxm

e Colorado, 134-1

., cite

o, referen

account of, 18. Basin,

map o

es,

ef account

ief account

e, Utah,

California

St. Law

he continen

ea and popula

of Mexico, continental

ap of west c

ief accoun

eam

lume, etc.

Indian

and popula

urs,

S. D., elev

an Isl

and populat

F. V., c

. W., ci

, A., ci

tains, Uta

W. H., ci

hy Valley,

, brief accou

ed, 22, 169, 220

possessio

, cited, 390,

ea and popul

Ore., hei

W. T., c

e by Indian

ns, 387-394. In

submerged chan

A. von,

T. H., c

rbons,

ts due to, 50-51. Su

is on continen

Montre

of, 316-326. Terranes, econ

le boundari

t of, 376-406.

United States and

ning of the

ief account

e sheets

untain,

res, 3

houses o

ractised by

, referenc

ds, 3

ars,

erms,

., referen

terrace

a., submerged

ent, refer

eak, Nev., h

t., Ore., he

W. D., ci

-tree

ayka

a, life

t., Me., he

s, 37

ny penep

F. H., c

, Alaska, i

ry of, 418. Topo

ths, 13

brief accou

enclose

ges, 3

poken in A

s, brief account of

., cited

x, L., ci

ental shelf, 10-16

d life-zon

ones,

Bank, brief

acado, El

lackfoot I

Yukon, hei

of Iroquoi

n, Tenn., secti

ountai

climatic pro

ascent of Mt.

anadens

River, del

., Alaska, h

olia

p of coas

es peculiar to A

ssification

t., N. H., h

N. Y., hei

l,

., cited, 3

tts, bound

es terr

house

culture

re., 153-155.

a, 27

s, the

mephiti

H., cited, 1

ver, bounda

324. Terranes, economic

ism, natu

opulation of, 424.

ns of

a,

of birds

etained by

map of, 53. River

e Bay

, definit

f account o

H., cited

413-414. Sheep, brief

, 27

n, cited,

ox, 2

nk, refere

life rea

thic,

syste

J. S., c

ick, mount

, boundary in r

, mountains

opulation of, 424. Conti

rights

on over La

ire, bound

of, 411-412. Subsid

ry of, 411-412.

ea and popula

ki?ld c

life re

me Mount

untains, W

marbl

ak,

position

he aborigin

er,

a Mount

, descriptio

238-249. Mountai

lithi

, 220

and populat

ntains,

ies,

definitio

ia, bounda

. A., ci

eum, 3

c divisions,

plateau,

32-233,

Ore., hei

y winds,

life,

treeless

inum

ristics of, 253.

ption

ic plu

, life in the sea ne

bear

ol, 419-424. Ge

of North Am

rea and popul

d by European g

, submerged c

, work of in Car

ed, 90, 104, 124,

ief account

s, brief acco

. H., refer

nodon

India

los,

sin, 158-161.

of,

Lake, Ne

., photograph of,

esa, N.

ts of Califor

in Alas

f the Meso

s, Ameri

sed by Indi

deltas

ief account of, 122

H. D., c

an Company, 37

, height of, 166. Elev

volcan

ountains, Mo.,

t., Wash., he

N. B., tid

, 55-56. River, subm

retained by

, 34

ea and popul

te Island,

area and popu

Bay, Cal., o

Islands,

s Park,

ills,

one, 3

lina Islan

z Island,

area and popu

a Island,

C. S., ci

C., maps com

penepla

or Indian

P. L., ci

Ore., heig

ns, 1

lls of Dakota, 117. Look

unt of, 306-316. Terranes, ec

242, 244-246. Semp

ah penep

lanca, N

och, menti

ains, Cal., brief a

ee De

346. P

ns of New

f account o

. M., refere

er possessi

gnum

me music,

untains,

hanges in coast-li

orest plain

river chan

rainage, exa

es of coa

nt mounta

-pine

drainage, exa

ver, submerged

, N. B., he

l mounta

e, Cal.-N

c,

ap of co-tidal

Indians,

s of California co

C, cit

storms,

-30. in r

r-lin

Indian

y of coas

does,

limatic prov

hent, refer

, 254-257. Plains, bri

province, 186-191.

ief accoun

H. W., c

. B., cite

Ore., heig

om, possessi

d population of, 424.

f Indians b

c Survey, referen

n, reference t

climatic pro

tan, panora

firs of, 241. Moun

C. R., c

voyage

f, referen

a creep

mountains

oes, 3

. R., cite

ef account

F., cit

Mt., N. H.,

ies, 411-413.

an hurric

d population of, 424. French

ns of

division o

winds

D., cit

. C., ci

Nev., heig

ns, N. H., fo

t., N. Y., h

J. D., ci

., Cal., he

Bailey,

lanetary

a Lake, N

ef account

w pin

Valley, C

l shelf bordering,

ver, del

i,

E

f Corr

k pages have been delete

ndered consistent on a

f such pairs when repeat

isher's errors were co

Corre

ous and silici

bbean[Ca

and the Carribean[

nown[better known] por

rd and resist

ho]!" is no m

tation[precipita

], Lake Louise

s phase of volcani

southestern[southe

thus exposed

more criticial

th remarkable unf

d with moderate s

calente[cali

vilization

to the family Mu

lar[peculiar] ho

plaiting] of bas

[Subsoil], i

[Mephitis] me

quelon], retaine

Fran?ois] Mountai

lóvioff], I. M.,

lens], Mt., Wash.

ti], brief acco

to be