Modern Geography

, but it has always been of great importance in determining the distribution of man and his settlements. Except in the mos

has always influenced the movements and settlements of man. The existence of useful metals in a particular area must always attract population to that spot, and it is obvious in the case of Australia, of California, and later of Alas

nts of stone, but that at a later state bronze was used, and corresponded to a marked rise in

he relatively soft metal copper. But we can hardly suppose that the first metal-workers discovered, immediately after they had learnt how to smelt metals, that a mixture of metals was mo

at a very early date, the process being aided by two facts, first, that copper ores are relatively easy to smelt, and, second, that the necess

f the pure metal and of its more useful alloy radiated over the Mediterranean and ultimately over Europe generally. It is more than probable that the use of copper or of bronze spread faster than the knowledge of the method of producing either. It is at least clear that in many cases th

ccur, suggesting that the Stone Age was very

n found, including many which contain antimony, a somewhat rare metal, still employed in making many useful alloys. It is suggested that the first

sed extensively in the manufacture of implements, the demand for bronze continued, for the iron, even of late Roman days, was very

ch were utilised by the first makers of bronze have doubtless completely disappeared, f

is occurs in the village of Montecatini, which is situated near Volterra in Italy, in the ancient Etrur

separate areas, which formed as it were three stages in one journey, and whose position cer

southern England, in Cornwall and parts of Devon, which are believed to have been visited by the Ph?nicians. Just as the gold of California brought population and civilisation to the Far West of North America long before the natural incr

re our era a land route was organised which carried British tin to Marseilles, and thus to the Mediterranean. The great valley of the Rhone renders such a traverse of France feasible, and the passage from the valley to the Rhone to that of the Loire or of the Seine is easy. The existence of a commerce in tin thus ensured that France was early and deeply permeated by Mediterranean civil

been a rare and precious metal when the Homeric poems took shape, and for long afterwards its use was partial and limited. The fact, however, that it

greater or less extent, in almost all rocks. Relatively pure ores are rare, most iron-bearing minerals containing a large number of impurities, some of which are very difficult to remove. Further, the process of smelting always requires much fuel, and, in the case of

estershire. The refuse thrown out of the ancient furnaces worked by the Romans here, was re-smelted by the British smi

mans in smelting, and the trees of the Weald or "wood" of Sussex and Kent were completely removed during the long centuries when the iron ores of that region were smelted. The Forest of Arden, near Birmingham, is another region where iron was long smelted by the aid of char

imported than was made in England. The countries which at this time were specially favoured in connection with the industry were those in which pure iron ores co-existed with extensive forests. This condition occurred especially in Germany, where the iron deposits formerly worked were those of the upland regio

and its use as the reducing agent gives a high quality of iron. Coal, on the other hand, often contains impurities which spoil the iron, and have to be provided against in various ways. Not all coal, indeed, is suitable

ways, the replacement of wood by iron in shipbuilding and for the framework of buildings, etc., the demand in all civilised communities has become enormous, has become too great to permit of

shed locally or easily obtained by water carriage, ores being so bulky that land carriage is rarely profitable; certain accessories, notedly limestone to serve as a flux, and ganister, a kind of sandsto

its early smiths showed no lack of skill. But with the advent of the age of iron its natural handicap became obvious. The forests of the region never had the luxuriance of those further north, and must have been early destroyed, and coal is virtually absent. Iron ores are

cial purposes. To generate this electricity water power is being used, and the appearance of small factories in the valleys of the Alpine border

he valleys in which they occur the inhabitants are forsaking their phylloxera-infested vineyards for the factories, and the association of the neglected land w

erywhere the coal has had an attractive influence, dragging population, wealth, and intelligence from the agricultural region

its long lead in the struggle for industrial supremacy, and we thus find the effect of coal upon the distribution of the population illustrated in a more striking way here than elsewhere. Further, Great Britain is especially fortunate in that i

up near the coalfields. Yet the very existence of these magnificent monuments of the past means that in the old days the towns in which they were placed were not only centres of population and of wealth, but had also prestige enough to draw men's eyes towards them. Their very peace and clea

e industrial revolution has been greatest. What do the towns of Alnwick, Durham, York, Lancaster, Appleby, Carlisle

coal, and therefore here also population tends to congregate round mineralised region

especially of coal and iron. This attractive power of minerals is no new thing. When the men armed with bronze or copper weapons and tools conquered those with stone i

n to their old state, and new industries were added to the old. Thus began that process which made the great manufacturing nations seek markets far beyond their own shores, and produce far in excess of their own needs. This, again, has led to enormous improvement

ield. The moist climate of Lancashire, with the relative proximity of the cotton supplies of the Southern United States, has determined the cotton industry of Lancashire. Once established the advantages associated with a going con

y to local supplies of flax, it is noticeable that the local supply is very limited, and several towns on the east coast of Scotland, as Dunfermline, Montrose, Arbroath, etc., have a flourishing linen industry maintained entirely by imported raw

carry cheap raw material over great distances, without excessive expense for freight. The study of the development of the means of co

for the intelligence which enabled him first to utilise other animals for his own purposes, and later to find mechanical means, the progress of civilisation would have been impossible. Progress

surface. On the other hand, the diminution of friction over a water surface makes transport over it relatively easy. It has been pointed out that, as a result of this fact

saw man settled on the shores of the great inland sea, and witnessed his gradual acquisition of greater and greater skill in navigation. As we h

in its turn, when compared with the greater oceans beyond. To this day, however, the part which water transport plays in human life is reflected in

and the use of a pole to steer with would naturally suggest its use as a paddle or oar in order to move against the current. In North America up till the appearance of

gy. Thus it has been pointed out that the reason why the effective discovery of America was delayed so long was largely due to two meteorological facts. The first of these is that to the north, the place where the crossing is narrowest, the ice which streams down the west coast of Greenland, and even to this day presents difficulties to navigation off the coasts of Newfoundland, formed an effective barrier

ndependent of the wind, and only the name of trade wind remains to carry us back

he aborigines used both snow-shoes and sledges. The Eskimos to the north use dogs to draw their heavy sledges, but to the south the Indians used a lighter form of sledge, which was dragged by women, and therefore represents a m

to the north, but the domesticated reindeer replaces the dog in Lapland as the means o

being the waste of sand which is popularly imagined, there are great areas of almost level surface, where "the soil is firm and elastic, strewn with gravel, and like a garden walk." In Algiers it is possible to drive in high dog-carts over the plateau region in

boats, the original Indian inhabitants mostly moved by means of "trails" through the woods. These trails were the lines of migration of the larger mammals, especially of the bison, and it is a remarkable fact that the roads made later by the white immigrants som

steep the path is usually well marked, and there may be even attempts to improve difficult parts so as to render it more practicable. When the ground becomes more level the path dies away, or divides up into a multitude of minor tracks. The reason is obvious. In the steep regions the cows must keep together, and their constant journeyings render the road well marked. It must also be easy enough to permit of the

rse the civilised countries of the world the gap is great, for, though the Romans made magnificent roads, after their time

ing pack-animals and wheeled vehicles for transport. The two do not necessarily occur together. Thus in China and Japan wheeled ve

ts of tropical Africa, despite the tropical luxuriance of many of the food plants, and the absence of winter, there is practically no food reserve, and the normal condition is that the whole group is within measurab

and Japan, where domestic hoofed animals are few in number. The contrary condition is of course seen in new countries, like Australia and the Argentine, where there are far fewer men than sheep and cattle. The United States is beginning

f which so much has been written, is in point of fact a poor substitute for the more valuable animal, rendered necessary by desert conditions. Among the other animals which have played their part as beasts of burden or of trac

ansport, though their cost, especially in countries of marked relief, is a great drawback to their universal use. The last few years have seen in the development of motor-driven vehicles a new change, which has given back to the roads their old importance, and which will probably in t

r freedom of movement, and an increasing number of wants, which have led in their turn to an increasing desire for the exchange of commodities. The desire to possess efficient tools and weapons first attracted him, as we have seen, to the localities where useful minerals occurred. The new powers so obta

that at no stage of his history has warfare been man's chronic state. Even at the worst period, if there had been no busy group of traders at the foot of the fortress-crowned rock, its significance could only have been trifling, and almost all fortress towns show, in the proximity of another agglomeration more s

s tended to occur at the tidal limit, as, e. g. at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Towns tend also to occur near natural obstacles to easy transport. Thus we have in England a great number of "bridge towns," placed at the point where an important river was easily bridged or forded, and thus where co-operative effort was necessary to s

rs. It is often doubtful, however, to what extent the supposed cause is the real cause of the city's importance. Not every saint founds a

of merchandise will pass this way, and will give abundant raw material for many minor industries. London

rn geographer regards towns, and to illustrate the fact that in this as in other b

S ON

on this subject. Salisbury's Physiography (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1907, $3.50 net) is the most comprehensive work on the subject in English. In French there is an admirable book by

ogy (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1903, price 12s. 6d.). For plant geography reference should be made to Schimper's Plant Geography, translated by Fisher (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, price 42s. net), which is again the classical treatise, and the basis of most of the later work. For the races of Europe we have in W. Z. Ripley's Races of Europe (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1900, price 18s. net) a most interesting book, not difficult and full of most in

omprehensive and authoritative work, which includes the whole globe in its survey, and has also general chapters on various aspects of geography. It is, however, a difficult book, intended for study rather than for general reading, and is very much condensed.

n all geograph

blished in 1889 it is brought up to date in successive editions, and is full of interest for the general public as well as for the geographer. In the same connection we may note J. G. Bartholomew's admirable Atlas of the World's Commerce (London: Georg

). This is especially intended for teachers, but gives full descriptions, with critical notes, of a great number of books. To the list given there we may add one book which, though intended for school use, may be noted as containing a great deal of information of the kind which is just beginning to

agazine, published monthly by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in Edinburgh, both give reviews and accounts of all important geographical b

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ME UNI

f Modern

utely new books by

rt Murray, H. A. L. Fisher, W. T

ibliographies, indices, also maps or illustrations, where ne

TURE A

er N

By Gilbert Murray, Regius

lumbia University. An interpretation of

the very few indispensable adjuncts to a

E. Hadow, Lecturer, Lady Margaret

N. By Joh

life, character, works, and friendships are surveyed; and

and the Poet." William Morris believed that the artist should toil for love of his work rathe

. By H. N. Brailsford. The influence

on, LL. D., D. Litt. "One of the 100 most imp

Literature, University College, London. "One of the soundest schol

author of "Catherine de Medici," "Me

Robertson, M. P., author of "Montaign

m Wyatt and Surrey to Synge and Yeats. "One of th

GE IN LITERATURE. B

. P. Smith. A concise history

iversity. "Should be put into the hands of every man who is beginning to write and o

he first full account from the inside of n

A. By W. P. Trent and John

ian People," etc. Tolstoi, Tourgenieff, Dostoieffsky, Pushkin (the father of

nity College, Cambridge. "It is difficult to imagine how a better acc

RE OF GERMANY. B

y Sir Frederick Wedmore. Wit

thaby. An introduction to the histo

AL SC

. Councilman, M. D., LL. D., Profes

and Patrick Geddes, joint aut

the Imperial College of Science, London. This very fully illustrated vol

FE. By Benjamin M. Moore, Profe

hemistry, Finsbury Technical College. Presents the way in w

, Professor of Electrical Engine

and figures. Describes the origin of the earth, the formation and changes of its surface and st

, M. D., Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Su

siology, Dalhousie University, Halifax. Explains in non-tec

or of the Home University Library. For those unacquainted with the scien

Prof. Patrick Geddes. Explains to the layman

ry. "Decidedly original in substance, and the most readable and informati

F. Barrett, formerly President of

an Society of London. The story of the development of flowering plants

stry and Radioactivity, University of Glasgow. "Brilliant. Can

of Oxford. A well digested summary of the essentials of the

McKendrick. A compact statement by the Emeritus

neral series of changes, bodily and mental, undergone by man in the course of history. "Excellent. So enthusi

Dr. C. Mercier, author of

WORLD. By Pro

TICS. By A. N. Whitehead, a

HY AND R

ern History in Cambridge University. Summarizes the history of the long struggle between aut

ILOSOPHY. By Clemen

Bertrand Russell, Lecturer and Late

thorities on this subject compares all the religions to see what they have

s Davids, Lecturer on Ind

NCONFORMITY. By W. B. Selbie. Prin

author of "History of England." The author seeks to prove that miss

Science, Cambridge. Discusses what is right

, Harvard University. "A popular work of the highest order. Will be profitable to anybody who car

es, Canon of Westminster. Shows how religious and ethical thought betwee

estament Criticism, Yale. An authoritative summary of the results of mo

L SCI

f Black Folks," etc. A history of the black man in Africa, A

ternational Co-operative Alliance, etc. Explains the various types of co-partnership and prof

ITARIANS. FROM BENTHAM TO J. S.

ERBERT SPENCER TO THE PRESENT

e. The meaning, measurement, distribution, and effects of unemployment, its relatio

. Social and Legal Rules-Legal Rights and Duties-Facts and Acts in

Professor of Political Economy and Dean of Faculty of

hor of "Problems of Poverty." A study of the st

ON, AND PRACTICE. By Sir Courtenay P.

r of "Democracy and Reaction." A masterly phil

nomist. Reveals to the non-financial mind the facts about inves

y J. Ramsay Macdonald, Chairm

onomy, University of Leeds. An outline of the recent changes that have given

English Law, Oxford. A simple statement of the basic principles of

Professor of Education, Manchester. Presents the history, the psychological b

the Irish people. "An entrancing work, and I would advise every one with a drop of Irish blo

STORY AND

tain. The main outlines of Serbian history, with special emphasis on the immediate causes of t

. F. Pollard, Professor of Engli

of Balliol College. The geographical, linguisti

f Dublin. The history of Poland with special emp

A. By A.

F TO-DAY. By

tory, Columbia. With maps. The historical, artistic, and co

P OF AFRICA. By S

INA. By H. A. Giles, Profe

rness. "The best small treatise dealing with the rang

y J. L. Myers, Professor o

cts with Prof. Myers's "Dawn of History" (No. 26) at about 1000 B. C. a

Fowler, author of "Soc

avis, Fellow at Balliol College, O

REVOLUTION. By

hancellor of Sheffield University. Autho

R TIME. (1885-191

rry, D. D., author of "The Papal Monarchy," etc. Th

PEACE. By G. H. Perris, author

etc. A brief history of the navies, sea Power, and ship growth of all nations, including

e, Leader of the "Scotia" expedition. E

of "The History of Our Navy," etc. A history

OF THE ALPS. By

he relation of physical features to living things an

By Sir John Murray, K. C. B., Naturalist H. M. S. "Challenge

gy, Royal College of Science, Ireland. A study of the geology a

CAN H

6). By Charles McLean Andrews, Pr

mith, Professor of American History, Williams College. A history of th

essor of History, Brown University. The author makes the history of t

ederick L. Paxson, Professor of Amer

2). By Paul Leland Haworth. A History

UMES IN P

OLT AND

4th Stree

riber'

has been s

and hyphenation found in the orig

e" and "

r" and

ly" and "f

on" and "

ons" and "in

es" and "l

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e" and "

ated" and "rece

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es" and "

ief" and "su

nd" and "

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ped" and "we

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ge

riod call

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damba

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rtal, 68

thal, 68

e 2

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ule P

ule P

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ion of the

tion of the