Invention

succession of inventions of many kinds, that formed stepping-stones to civ

first half of which there was a gradually decreasing lack of inve

overnment was due largely to following where Greece had led. That Rome in her early days should have followed the methods of Greece was natural of course; for the two countries were close together, and the methods of Greece

and that was in incorporating conquered states into the parent state, and granting their inhabitants the privileges of citizenship; instead of keeping them in the condition of mere subject states. The Roman system was somewhat li

into an effective machine of government by the Romans constituted an invention; though in vi

ke, intensely practical, and possessed of an extraordinary talent for what we now call "team work." As a nation

n the eighth century B. C.," and consisted of an unbroken line of warriors, several ranks deep. The Thebans improved on this; and from the Theban, Philip developed the Macedonian phalanx with which Alexander fought his way through Asia. The Romans under Servius Tullius developed this into the Roman phalanx,

movements, and yet the machine seemed to possess the necessary rigidity when the shock of impact came. The heavy infantry was in three lines, and each line was divided into ten companies, or "maniples." The burden of the first attack was borne by the first line. If unsuccessful,

by means of their legions that the Romans passed outside of the walls of Rome, and conquered all of Italy. It was by means of their legions that the Romans conquered all

iterranean, inhabited by descendants of the Ph?nicians. They were an aggressive and energetic people, but only commercially. They were not of the warlike cast

first naval battle took place near the promontory of Myl?. Naturally, the Romans were at a great disadvantage as compared with the experienced officers and sailors in the Carthaginian fleet; for though the Roman soldier was far better than the Carthaginian, the Roman sailor was inexperienced and unskilful. To remedy the difficulty, the Romans made a simple but brilliant invention. They provided each quinquereme with a "corvus," that c

essful and effective. The battle ended in a perfect victory for the Romans

d ability, threatened Rome herself after a brilliant victory near Lake Trasimene. Another victory followed at Cann?, but a decisive disaster later on the Metaurus River. So the Second War wa

t Rome should prevail than Carthage. The Romans, harsh and ruthless as they were, were less so than the Carthaginians; and they had an element of strong manliness and a comprehensive grasp of things beyond

in Greece, and brought Greece and Macedonia under her sway. She had previously (190 B. C

blican form of government. In that year, 58 B. C., the man who probably is the most generally regarded

lliant and in many respects unprecedented campaigns which have had so profound an effect o

tive civilization reigned. The lands that lay north and northwest of Italy, throughout all Gaul, were inhabited by savage tribes that were in a state of continual war with each other. In the southern and middle parts the effec

the Roman machine was superior as a machine to any that the Gauls could bring to bear, it was smaller; so that the question to be decided was whether the superior excellence of the Roman machine was great enough to balance its inferiority in size. Looking back from our vantage ground on the history of the campaigns that followed, we feel inclined t

ed;-yet not to such a degree as to put him in a higher class than many other generals of history, or to account wholly for his marvellous successes. One peculiar ability, however, he possessed and exercised in a degree greater than

them also into Italy, C?sar hastened to the Rh?ne River, destroyed the bridge which they would naturally go over, and forbade the Swiss to attempt to cross the river. The Swiss pleaded with C?sar to permit them to cross. As C?sar realized that the Swiss were too greatly superior in force to be kept back, unless he co

rous Swiss with barriers which they could not pass. It may even be argued with much reason that the conception and successful execution of C?sar's plan as a whole constituted an invention, even though the material used was old. Certain it is that a situation was created which did not exist bef

d to use them. Besides the fighting men strictly considered, C?sar took a considerable number of engineers with him, and expert men for building bridges, and doing mechanical w

is feat alarmed the Swiss more than their defeat; because C?sar had built the bridge and sent his army across in one day, whereas they had consumed twenty days in merely crossing. The Swiss pleaded to be allowed to proceed; but C?sar was obdurate. A

after certain occult proceedings, that Heaven forbade them to fight before the new moon. Apprehending his opportunity, he advanced his forces right up to the German

afterwards,-if anything unexpected occurred, or if any reverse was sustained; whereas the Romans-and especially C?sar himself-never behaved so well as when threatened wit

take it by storm; and so he brought forward his mechanical siege appliances. The psychological ef

ides, and was protected by a thick, high double wall on the fourth side. C?sar made a fortified rampart around the town, pushed his mantlets (large shields on wheels protected on the sides and top) close up to the wall, and built a tower. T

read. The situation at once became serious for C?sar, for the reason that the Veneti could not be subdued, except on the sea; and neither the Roman sailors nor the Roman vesse

er, the latter was superior even in numbers. Furthermore, the Romans were at a great disadvantage i

ng poles on which were sharp hooks which they put over the halliards that held up the sails. Then each Roman galley rowed rapidly away, the halliards were cut, and

models for engineers; for in ten days after he had decided to build it, at which time the material was still standing in the forest, a bridge 40 feet wide had been constructed. Across this C?sar at once marched his legions. The effect on the barbarous Ge

tion a highly original, concrete and successful scheme. By it he accomplished as much as a victorious campaign would have accomplished, and without shedd

succeeded, and then formed his camp. A Roman camp, we may now remind ourselves, was so distinctly a Roman conception, and so distinctly a part of the Roman system of conducting war, that it almost constituted an invention. Whenever a Roman army halted, even

rgy directed the work of recovery and repair, and enabled the Romans to collect and put into good condition nearly all their ship

but another storm arose that scattered his ships. He returned at once to the coast, and instituted such prompt and resourceful measures that in ten days he was able to resume his march. On this ma

nt under circumstances of the

ulness and originality on the part of the barbarians. C?sar would continually do something that the barbarians had not expected him to do

ion, in cases where the possible occasions are not of the ordinary and expectable kind? In such cases, does it not require imagination to foresee the possible occasions, and form a correct

he factors that contributed to the successes in Gaul of C?

it was plain to the barbarians that C?sar, being held in position fronting a fortress that he could not successfully storm, would be in a precarious condition if attacked vi

s he added a breastwork of pointed stakes; while at intervals of eighty feet he constructed turrets. In addition, he had branches cut from trees and sharpened on the ends; and these he fastened at the bottom of the trenches, so that the points projected just above the ground. In front of these he dug shallow pits, into which tapering stakes hardened in the fire were driven, projecting four inches above the ground. These pits were hidden with twigs and brushwood. Eight rows of these pits were dug, three feet ap

but an unexpected situation arose when C?sar attacked a separated part in their r

. The last major act was taking a strong fortress. This was accomplished by cutting a tunnel, by which the spring was tapped that supp

re characterized by the same high order of inventiveness. His later operations against Pompey, and later still against Pharnaces and Scipio, were conducted under conditions that gave him less opportu

ainst Pharnaces. This subject has been the theme of jurists and scholars to such a degree that it might seem presumptuous in a navy officer to do more than mention it. At the same time it may be point

Octavius possessed the ability and the character to carry on the constructive work that Julius C?sar had begun. Under Octavius and his successors, the Ro

ndividuals increased also, and enormous public works of all kinds were constructed, many of

nd the consequent dulling of the imagination, had assumed its place. Senescence followed in due course. Then the empire was divided i

ession from th

s beleaguered by a Turkish fleet, much greater than its own, it had not suddenly received unexpected aid in the shape of a new invention. This was "Greek fire," which seems to have been a pasty mixture of sulphur, nitre, pitch, and other substances, which when squirted against wood set it on fire with a flame that wa

*

he beginning of recorded history until the fall of Rome, we have observed the coming of many inventions of both material and immaterial

on. To this, the answer may very reasonably be made that this book does not pretend to be a history, or to point out what have been the greatest factors that have influenced its l

world up to the fall of Rome is attributed in this book to inventors only; that all the work of st

o the effect that the purpose of this book is not to compare the benefits conferred by any one class of men

had. This does not mean that the men who risked their money in making novel clocks did not influence the history of the clock materially; and it does not mean that the men who made good materials for them did not influence the history of the clock greatly; and it does not mean that the engineers and mechanics who operated them successfully did not influence its history. It would be absurd to pretend that each one of these men did not influence the history of the clock; for without them there would have been no

efore, it can hardly be gainsaid that, so far as invented things are concerned, their inventors

eir means; the growth of nations and other organizations; the invention of certain mechanisms, arts and sciences; and the construction of certain structures such as temples, p

ar itself, so much as by the result of the war. Let us also remind ourselves that the result of

mechanisms, processes and methods. The skill with which they were handled-(especially when supreme skill was exerted, as in the cases of Alexander and C?sar)-was the outcome not of mere laborious training, not of mere knowledge, or courage, or carefully

ven more obviously to invention than war does. Every department of ancient civilization seems traceable ba

. This does not mean that the inventor of a child's toy influenced history more than did any one of the millions of wise and good men in each gene