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Chapter 1 GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY.
Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in its widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north of Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that of the State of Nevada.
The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest of Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this pass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through the whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend easterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging the coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country causes the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into the Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic.
Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPíNA (Gaul this side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and the Trebia on the south, are of historical interest.
The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, between the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which comes the name Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii.
Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus were Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta Taurinórum (Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a little stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpína on the southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the southern boundary on the other side of Italy.
CENTRAL ITALY, Italia Propria, or Italy Proper, included all of the peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In this division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which empty into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, which empty into the Adriatic.
The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering on the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and to the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICéNUM, and SAMNIUM.
The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was Veii, an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba Longa. Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, was Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to Alba Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were near the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near Rome.
In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua, Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano of Vesuvius was here, and also Lake Avernus.
In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior were Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat of Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria.
In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum.
SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA and BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its only stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought a famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns.
In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum.
The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. Among them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium.
The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about 10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta (or Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains, the chief of which is Aetna.
SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is off Etruria; CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli) and LIPARA are north of Sicily, and the AEGáTES INSULAE are west of it.
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Chapter 1 GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY.
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Chapter 2 THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY.
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Chapter 3 THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT.
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Chapter 4 THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME.
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Chapter 5 THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS.
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Chapter 6 THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES.
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Chapter 7 THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS.
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Chapter 8 THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS.
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Chapter 9 EXTERNAL HISTORY.
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Chapter 10 WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272).
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Chapter 11 DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.-NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD.
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Chapter 12 FOREIGN CONQUEST.
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Chapter 13 ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS
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Chapter 14 THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. (218-216.)
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Chapter 15 THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA
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Chapter 16 ROME IN THE EAST.
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Chapter 17 THE SYRIAN WAR.
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Chapter 18 CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (171-146.)
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Chapter 19 THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE.
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Chapter 20 ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.)
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Chapter 21 INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE GRACCHI.
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Chapter 22 EXTERNAL HISTORY.-PERGAMUM.-JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104).
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Chapter 23 THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.-POLITICAL QUARRELS.
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Chapter 24 INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88).
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Chapter 25 MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA.
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Chapter 26 SERTORIUS.-SPARTACUS.-LUCULLUS.-POMPEY AND CRASSUS.
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Chapter 27 CAESAR.-CICERO.-VERRES.
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Chapter 28 TROUBLES AT ROME.-CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE.
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Chapter 29 THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.
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Chapter 30 CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL.
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Chapter 31 CLODIUS AND MILO.-DEATH OF CRASSUS.
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Chapter 32 CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.-BATTLE OF PHARSALIA.
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Chapter 33 CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN.
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Chapter 34 MURDER OF CAESAR.
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Chapter 35 THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.-PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM.
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Chapter 36 AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.)
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Chapter 37 THE AUGUSTAN AGE.
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Chapter 38 THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS.
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Chapter 39 THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS.
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Chapter 40 THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS.
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