The Psychology of Management

s pred

ds st

apacity; never having thought of what he has done, he has no idea what can be done, neither has he a comparative idea of methods, that is, of how to do it. It is impossible for a definite progr

practically lost to the world, and perhaps also to him. Not only this, but all bad methods which he has

y others. On the other hand, he may underestimate his capacity, and be left idle because work he should have done has been assigned to others. Either of thes

s conscious record the idea of capacity develops. The man realizes what he can do. So also, the idea of method develops, and the man realizes how he can do the work. Third, there comes gradually

record becomes written the exactness of the programme increases. Methods also become written, and, though accurate prediction is not po

esses of analysis and synthesis. Through this process, as has been shown, the reason for success is discovered and rendered usable. The p

type, imply not a greater rigidity, but a greater elasticity. This because of the nature of the elements

MM

ear during the evolution of Scientific Management is the fact that they cause constant simplification. The more carefully records are standardized, the simple

ollows a programme most closely resembles the programme. Improvements are not made between the programme and the following record, - they find their place between the record and the fol

anagement. When the worker sees that Scientific Management makes possible accurate predictions of times, schedules, tasks, and performance; that the methods prescribed invariably enable him to achieve prescribed

-present opportunities to better standards, fulfills that lo

Cost Keeping and Manage

Paper No. 1002,

Cost Keeping and Manage

Paper No. 1002,

Psychology, Brief

TER

AC

aching" as "the act or business of instructing," with synony

t, show;" "to tell, inf

to do something);

practical skill to;" "to

trinate" is meant "to cause to hold as a doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the same authority, "is to deve

ically none; at least, this is usually the condition under the most elementary types of Traditional Management. In the very highest examples of the traditional plan the le

further information might discharge him for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an apprentice, an older worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next to him, or the foreman, or someone over him. An important fact bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecuniary advantage of any particular person to give this teaching. In the first place, if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his own work without interruption, he will not want to take

ove that an apprentice of only a generation ago was too often hazed, was discouraged from appealing for assistance or advice to the workers near him, or to his foreman; was unable to find valuable literature for home-study on the subject of his tr

s an oversupply of labor almost invariably resulted in a lowering of wages. The quicker and better the apprentice was taught, the sooner he became an active competitor. There seldom existed under this type of management many staff positions to which

. Not only could he gain little or nothing by being a successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was appealed to constantly, and the des

sification. One type of apprentice was expected to learn merely by observation and imitation. Another was practically the chore boy of the worker who was assigned to teach him. A third was

in spite of all drawbacks, occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the best of his lights. He insisted on applicatio

er the teaching was usually done according to wrong methods. Quality of resulting output

ilities, and of which parts of his own method were fit to be taught. In the second place, he did not know that right motions must be insisted on first, speed next, a

the manner in which the work should be done. Moreover, no standard division and assignment of work allowed of placing apprentices at such parts of the work that quality could be given third place. No standard requirements had determined his fitness

lt for an adult to change his method. 1 Moreover, it would be difficult for a worker using one method to persuade one using another that his was the better, there being no standard. Even

ision for adequate promotion and pay, standards, and the other underlying principles of Scientific Management, especially the appreciation of co?peration, - that it is almost impossible to disentangle the reasons for it. Nor would

roviding for the teaching of foremen and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the providing of written systems of instructions as to best practice. The wor

ms enables every worker to receive instruction at any time, to feel f

as a source of teaching, except for the indefinite teachers of the Traditional Management, the improvement becomes definitely

tem. - The worker has incent

reasons in writing for permanent fil

basis, the first bonus that is given is for doin

nt for so doing, and that he will be considered to have "stacked his judgment" against that of the manager. Being called to account f

is, under this type of management, no

of time which he must put on studying; he must consider his own work, and adapting that method to his work while still obeying instructions. In the case of the system being in great detail, he can usually find a fairly detailed description of what h

d is taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far cuts down his total product. Moreover, if no re

nagement eliminates this waste of time by standardizing methods composed of standa

important element under Scientific Management not only because it increa

ivides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of all more than any could have alone. The importance of having this collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to t

nagement for permanence. 3 We have already shown the derivation of the standards which are taught. We have shown that the relation between the planning and performing departments

ised in response to theories of education. They are the result of actual experience in getting work done most successfully. The tea

. - The fact that teaching under Scientific Management does conform, as will be show

but the era of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the future will be to teach and to lead, to t

agreement and collective bargaining, workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes of industrial investigation in which modern science has been successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be advocated that the mind would grow b

habits of bad methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work; habits of inattention. Any or al

wever, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system of teachin

er the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his

he old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with confiden

note that the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written system, which is the distinguishing cha

ic Management. - Under Scientifi

right methods

ht habits of doing

t can be acquired without the learner being obliged h

ment. - The needs for this teaching have b

not observe hi

er the old industrial conditions

st know stan

e eliminated b

bits can be

c Management. - The sources of teac

nds or

llow

ature of

schools

Manag

e worke

se t

c Management. - The Methods of Teac

ten, by

ds telling what is

s, explain

plans, photographs,

ade by the wo

ching of the Fun

ect-le

Exhi

rking

rations by

s by the worker u

kers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and that the teachers

orm, closely defined description of standard practice and directions as to how each element of the standardized task is to be p

come a leader, demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for becoming one of th

etailed reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions embodied in the directions of the

udgment will never re?nforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through

on Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion ph

ally useful in helping non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as an educator of

ucted chronometer that shows such minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a speed that will catch the most rapid of human motions without a blur, will

dure wherever possible.6 Not only does the worker learn from the actual marking in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he learns to feel himself a part of the r

ness it is to explain, translate and supplement the various written instructions when the worker eit

t. - Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at least fo

is capable of gi

's specialty is g

is a supplement to

s at the exact time tha

derstand the minds of his men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that it will be gr

e teaching

of Instruction C

al practice

of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries in particular, ar

he gap between him and those he teaches is not so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how the worker must have his information presented to him. Thi

t or trade that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of Psychology will never be a substitute for the mastery of the trade, a

e that he is to teach; he must have also the knowledge that comes only from scientific investigation of his trade.

is to teach as compared with those of methods held in high esteem by the believer in the old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be efficient in teach

thusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause contagion

matter how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form or device of management that does away with good men,

mic values of the methods of Scientific Management, that all other objects that would ordinarily distract or hold their attention will be banished from their minds. They will then

and economical teaching may be done with such models, which are especially valuable where the workers do not speak the same language as the teacher, where many workers are to perform exactly similar work, or whe

ized right methods on the motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new

chief method of teaching the workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is

type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he is

The instruction card and accompanying illustrations are given to the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that he can consult th

r oral instruction, and the systems ar

hing under Scientific Management is most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologicall

nd trains

d habits of thi

ulates a

for valuable

nd strengthen

ops the i

elops j

izes sug

es "native

elops t

g, 9 but at certain times one sense may be stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth when his doctor cometh by the fall of his f

available, to utilize these periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim

n the directions as to what he is to do, and on the accuracy with which his senses record the impressions made upon them, depends the mental model which he ultimate

ense becomes trained, the minimum visable is reduced, and more accurate impressions become possible.10 They lead to more rapid work, by elimina

rgans as "organs of selection." 11 Scientific Management so trai

trations, not only tends to increase powers of visualization, but also, by the close observation it demands, it reduces the minimum visible. The "visible instruction card," or working model, is an example of supplementing weak power of visualizati

inspection. This inspection is not confined to the inspector, but is the constant practic

e work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is

nance at a different time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa Montessori's experience with teaching very young chil

e should be conserved. 14 Such acuteness is often the result of some

elements and the possibility of study. As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many opportunities for training and utilizing the senses. But the standardizing

t progress in appealing to as many senses as possible in its teaching. The im

animate and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing t

elf silently -

es and ears appealed to, also

loud to o

nd also read silently

time copied - eyes, ears, mus

ile process descri

ile process is pe

ombinations, any of which are used, as

to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced worker.

have directions read to the worker. So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of

learned, be otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning process. In teaching the "touch system" of typewriting, 18 the position of the keys is quickly remembered by havi

Scientific Management is in the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. This was early recognized

ubject of fatigue. The importance of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, France, is great.19 Not only

he psychological point of view, is nothing but a new pathway of discharge form

great thing, then, in all education, is to make our nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. For this we mus

demonstrate the i

ving spent the early years of his school life in Germany, will, even after learning to sp

who attempts to follow the packet method. The standard motions for picking up the upper row of bricks from the packet are entirely different from those for pic

lopment. For example, it took centuries for artists to see the colors of shadows corre

he aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has been said

an older, supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old motor images, which tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard images, which suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous recurring of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention and being unable to get down to business, and the real cau

is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new habit. This is at once practiced, is practi

n teaching, allow of the speediest forming of habits, in that repetition is exact and fr

ction of the teacher during the stage that habits

Good Habits. - This

to say, - the right number of ri

nd, that is to say, cons

ly improvin

practice the quality of the work was the first consideration, the quantit

d constantly to follow the improved habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involu

ns first was early recognized by a few progressive spirits, as is shown in military tactics;

rections not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse

he right habit is formed at the outset. With the constant insistence on these right habits that result from right moti

ence on right motions will be prescribed quality, because the standard mo

e or no loss from the quality of the work during the learning period. The delay in time before the learner can be said to produce such work as could

can all, in the last analysis, be formulated in terms of habits, even to the underlying spirit of co?peration which, as we shall show in "Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific Management. These right habits of Scient

causes speed of motion. Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of motio

ing associated from the start with right habits of motions only, cause an

great aid toward these steady nerves. The man who knows that he is taught the right way, is able almost automatically to resist any suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in lay

mplies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the co?r

cle; the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the m

the right way, and knowing that it is the right way. There is none of the lost

correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but also s

m the ranks, and thus providing that every member of the organization shall,

of attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective attitude," 27 by presenting events in an orderly sequence. The co

thm that allows the attention to "glide over some beats and linger on others," as Prof. Stratton describes it, in a different connection.28 So also the "perfectly controlle

put, - to attract and hold the attention.30 Providing, as it does, all directions that an experienced worker is likely to need, he can confine his attention solely to his work and his card; usually, after the

individual, not only directly concentrates the attention of the learner upon what he is being taught, but also indirec

terest, which conserves the economic value of concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. Such future tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention to rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or forced attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the "stream of attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought is installed. When the scheme is an

will follow success stimulates interest. The knowledge that this

his own trade promoted, and knows it is to the advantage of the management, as well as

ork of others, not only by the interrelated bonuses, but also by the fact that e

des for scientifically directed progression. Every member of the organization knows that the standards which are taught by Scientific Management contain the permanent elements of past successes, and provide for such development as will assure progress and success in the future. Every member of the o

Scientific Management provides that all ideas are associated, and are so closely connected

together, they form a habit of acting in unison, so that when one of them is stimulated in a certain way, the others will also behave in the way established by the habit."31 This working of the brain is recogni

the use of such elements in instruction cards, would be formed, in the minds of the worker, such groups of units as would aid in foreseeing results, jus

c Management synthesizes the units into definite

rmance. This enables the worker to associate certain definite motions, to make these into a habit, and to con

neously. 33 The string mortar method has two cycles, which are, first to pick a certain number of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit them on the wall, and then to pick up

inite rhythmic cycles, is the one who is most efficient, and least fatigued by a given output. The nerves acquire the h

ts association, and thus gains in the speed with which associated ideas arise.36 Insistence on causal sequence is

emory is founded on experience, and that experience that is submitted by teaching under Scien

that is

in acquiring new habits o

arison, and constant

elements that reasoning

us, efficie

associatio

they are, and the oftener they have been reviewed by renewed memorizing." Scientific Management provides for utilizing this law by teaching right motions

ogists in regard to whether or not the memorizing faculty, as the whole, can be improved by training; but all agree that those thin

y in the morning, but is not always so. The period when memorizing is easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as possible, new m

when is the best time to learn, or whether he shall have but one at a time, and concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is a great help to see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, and feeling that they are mor

or process can go, and recover the full knowledge of that which he has forgotten. Better still, they furnish him the equivalent of memory of

ory, because of the classifications of Scientific Management, is a most important cause of workers being taug

the remembering will take care of itself." 37 Scientific Management both provides proper knowled

ntific Management are cumulative. Ultimately, right habits of remembering result that a

Professor Read gives definitions fo

function of the

iously memories or the reproduction of the facts of experie

discussion of the appeals of the various teaching devices of Scientific Manag

vis

udit

ctual

mix

om old memory images; of being able to modify and group images of past experiences, or thoughts, in combination with new images based on imagination, and not on experience. The excellence of the image arrived at in the complete work is dependent wholly upon the training in image forming in the past. If there has not been a complete economic system of forming standard habits of thought, the worker may have difficulty in controlling the trend of associations of thought images, and d

tive, imagination, not only by providing standard units, or images, from which the results may, be synthesize

his memory images grouped in such a figure, form, or sequence, - often geom

ly new cycles, and are, as provided for in the opportunit

fully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled out. Silently, between all the details of his business, the power of ju

standards that are recognized as such by the learner. Thus, much time is eliminated, and the apprentice under Scientific Management

as a spring toward action.44 Scientific Management appeals to the reason, and workers perform work as the

ent, in that the instruction card is put in the form of direct commands, which, naturally, lead to immediate

e counted a special form of suggestion," will

thout delay, because he believes in the standardization on which it is made, and in the management that makes it. But the Systems afford

suggestion is impaired. This is provided for by the underlying idea of co?peration on which Scientific Management rest

curiosity, (4) imitation, (5) emulation, (6) ambition, (7) pugnacity, (8) pride, (9) ownership, (10) constructiveness.49

managers of armies and ancient works of construction was that of fear. This is shown

r modern Traditional Management, but fear of less progress, less promotion, less remuneration

l fear that he will incur a penalty, or fail to deserve a reward, but the honest, industrious w

s task is

rk will not in

re of advancement wi

sure of the

fect upon him. It is an incentive to co?perate willingl

e management plans to maintain such conditions as will enable him to have the four as

tions between employers and workers, it gives opportunities for such relations

are" between employer and workers that made permanent friendliness almost impossible. Co?pe

e, to none in its loyalty, efficiency and steadfastness of purpose."53 This same loyalty of the workers is plain in an article in Industrial Engineering, on "Scientific Management as Viewed from the Workman's Standpoint," where various men in a shop having Scientific Management were interviewed.54 After quoting var

ement fosters such loyalty. Only through friendly aid can both teacher and taught prosper. Also, the perfec

6 Rather, Scientific Management enhances the value of an admirable personality. This is well exemplified in the Link-Belt Co., 57 and in th

, through its teaching, glimpses of the possibilities that exist for further scientific investigation. The insisten

investigator. It can be well utilized by the teacher who recognizes it in the learner, by an adaptation of methods of inte

at is its result, may serve as an admirable indication of one sort of fitness. This curiosity, or general i

own with scorn on the individual or organization that imitated others. Scientific Management believes t

c Management induces both spontaneous and deliberate imitation. The standardization prevalent, a

teacher, when the latter has been demonstrating. This leads to desired results. So, also, the worker imitates, more or less spontaneously, his ow

is caused more than anything else by the fact that the man knows, i

He knows that the management believes he can do the work, or the instruction card would not have been issued to him. Moreover, he sees that

ould imitate. Even though he might come to determine, by constant observation, after a time, which man he desired to imitate, he would not know in how far he would do well to copy any particular method. Recording individually measured output under Transitory Manageme

r Scientific Management can use to advantage, as an added incentive to imitation. Any dislike of imitation is further decreased, by making clear to eve

Scientific Management, and admiration for the skillful teacher, or the standa

with the reco

on with one'

n with the st

successful. In the second sort of competition, the worker, by matching himself against what he has done, measures his own increased efficiency. In the third sort of competition, there is the added stimulus of surpris

so rapid, and so outlined before the worker, that he sees the chance for advancement himself, and not only advancemen

Management this force is aroused not against one's fellow-workers, but against one's work. The desire to win out, to fight it out, is aroused against a large task, which the man desires to put behind him. Moreover, there is nothing under Scien

t. So, also, the fact that individuality, and personality, are recognized, and that his records are shown, makes pride serve as a stimulus. The outcome of the worker's pride in his wo

becomes stunted, under Scientific Management, in that all tools become more or less standardized, and the man is

nagement provides two opportunities for the wo

lows the worker to identify himself with his work, and where his co?

ore hours away from work to enjoy ownership, and more money

tunities, as he readily can, since the instinct of

eliminated, and everything that is done is upbuilding. Teaching makes this clear to the worker. Constructiveness is also util

entific Management labors under disadvantages that must, ultimately, be removed. Psychologists must, by experiments, determine more accurately the reactions and their controlability. More thorough study must be made of children that Scientif

ex and difficult part of Scientific Management, is the training of the will of all members of the organi

ng the will is the help furnished by supp

the building up in the mind of the proper interests, and the

the establishing of a firm association between ideas and acti

training of the will has reference to its

tter of di

ly these five functions, and thus provide for

t must not only be prepared to teach apprentices, as must all types of manag

ny other type of management. Standard methods enable the apprentice to become proficient long before his brother could

of ineffective motions, must be eliminated. Physically, it is difficult for the adult worker to alter his methods. Moreover,

is work, will often be extremely sensitive to what he is prone to r

ed that all criticism of him is constructive, and that for him to conform to the new standards is a mark of added proficiency, not an acknowledgment of ill-preparedness. The "Systems" do much toward this work of reconciling the older worke

rovide a place where learners can work. The standard planning of quality provides such a place. The plus and minus signs automatically divide labor so that the worker can be taught by degrees, being set at first where great

utput of proper prescribed quality determines what pay he shall receive, and also has a proportionate effect on the teacher's pay. Such a system of measurement may not be accurate as

agement can never be most efficient until the field of such teaching is restricted to training learners who are properly prepa

r his trained muscles that they will respond quickly and accurately to orders. Such training should be started in infancy, 62 in the form of guided play, as, for exa

emains in school, the higher the position for which he should be prepared. The amount and nature of the training in the schools depends largely on the industrial work t

ine of activity which he can follow best and with greatest satisfaction to himself. At present, such bureaus are seriously handicapped by the fact that little data of the industries are at hand,

the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and in Scientific Management, must recognize their common work, and must co?perate to do it. There is absolutely

MM

not improve the quantity and quality of his work. This depends almost entirely on the partic

work gains in quantity as the methods become st

uantity of work, increases enormously through the use of

vement co?perate, high output of required quality will be obtained at a far earlier stag

d by which he is taught is seldom, of itself, helpful to him. Not being sure that he has learned the best way to do his work,

better method of attack, as he knows the reason why the prescribed method is prescr

an accurate accumulation of concepts, which results in a proper method of attack. Th

relating in its entirety to t

to apply the same process to acquiring knowledge of ot

tails, which is the surest method for furthe

gement results, naturally, in a comparison of true data. This is th

results, and the trained habits of observation quickly analyze and

one most desired for causing

The teaching under Scientific Management leads to the acquisition of such judgment, plus

the results may make mor

tter trained

correct thin

edness pro

and repetitive

powers i

proper reactio

riginal work"

waste elimin

d of atta

n fully

rd response

and demands for "t

reliance

of truth

sentiment

nt happines

hose best fitted to teach it. The collection of vocational guidance data will begin with a child at birth, and a record of his inheritance will be kept. This will be added to as he is educated, and as various traits and tendencies appear. From this scientifically derived record will accrue such data as will assist

youth and his desires, the school will know, and can give exactly, that training that is necessary for the vocation. It can

of the craft," now become standard, and free to all. Such teaching Scientific Management is prepared to give. The results of such teaching of Scientif

ted workers, equipped to work, and to live,65 a

re, - prejudice will disappear. The fact that all men, those going into industries and those not, will be taught alike to be finger wi

ultimately have on doing away with industrial warfare, - the great warfare of ignorance, where neither side understands the other, and where each side should realize that large im

, Bricklaying Sys

Introduction of Scientific Management, E

, paper 928, A

Work, Wages and

, paper 928, A

anagement, para. 289, H

ngineering Magazine,

in Motion Study, Industrial En

troduction to Experimental

perimental Psychology

Psychology, Brief

laying System, chap. I,

ine, May, 1911, Dec

man's keennes

A First Book in Ps

mental Psychology an

th an actor's

perimenting with a

vail professionnel ouvrier, Sur la fatig

Psychology, Brief

iam James, Psychology,

th, Bricklaying

imental Psychology

illiam James' Psychology, B

, Bricklaying Sys

A First Book in

Teacher's Handbook

imental Psychology

imental Psychology

matter of appealing to what is known to

n Introductory P

reth, Motion

icklaying System

th, Bricklaying

Introductory Psych

xperimental Psycholo

n Introductory P

ychology, Advanced Co

hology, pp. 212-213. William James,

A First Book in

Teacher's Handbook

Psychology, Brief

fluencing Men in B

d., cha

The Theory of Ad

asing Human Efficienc

perimental Psychology

Principles of Scienti

s, Talks to Teac

nical Dictionary,

Scott's Increasing Efficie

r and Apprenticeship, c

dings of the Congress of

vember

Belt Co., Phi

e J.W. Jenks's, Governmental Ac

Management, para. 31

acher was white, in order to send them to a Southern school having a colored teacher th

Introductory Psych

rberg, American

gie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 70.

t his son in infancy, to prepare him to be an athl

Vocational Guidance of You

nd the Foundation of the Mode

nto full consciousness, to give it insight and clearness, and to exalt it into a life of creative freed

PTE

ENT

t which moves the mind or stirs the passions; that which incites or tends to incite to

ork as well. The business man finishing his work early that he may go to the baseball game; the boy at school rushing through his arithmetic that he may not be kept after school; the piece-worker, the amount of whose day's pay

of work and start in to race one another to see who can accomplish the most, who can finish the fixed amount in the shortest space of time, or who can produce the best quality. The incentive may be in the form of some definite aim or goal which is understood by the worker himself, or it may be in some natural instinct which is ro

set reward or punishment, "indirect incentive." This, at first sight, may seem a contradictory use of terms - it may seem that the reward would be the most direct of incentives

irst as, contrary to the usual use of the word "indirect," they are most easy to est

remuneration, requital and retribution." Note particularly the word "retribution," for it is this aspect of reward, that is, the just outcome of one's act, that makes the re

confinement, or other penalty inflicted on a person for a crime or offense by the authorit

so is unfortunate; but, in the first place, there is no better word to cover the general meaning; and in the second place, the idea of pain and sufferin

opposite of being at rest. This being true, punishment is just as surely an incentive to action as is reward. The man who is punished in every case will be led to some sort of action. Whether this really results in an increase of output or not simply determines whether the punishment is a scientifically prescribed

that all can receive extra rewards permanently without a cut in the rate, it may be advisable, for the worker's best interests, to limit output in order to keep the wages, or reward, up, and soldiering results. The evils of soldiering will be discussed mor

; anything which can be given to the man who does the work to benefit him and increase his desire to continue doing the work. Punishments may be negative, that is, they may simply take the form of no reward; or they may be positive, that is, th

ambition, pride and pugnacity; will be love of racing, love of play; love of pers

de for some sort of promotion of the man who did the most and best work; but the lack of standardization of conditions, of instructions, of the work itself, and of reward, makes it almost impossible not only to give the reward, but even to determine who deserves the reward. Under Traditional Management, the reward need not be positive, that is, it might simply consist in the negation of some previously existing disadvantage. It need not be predetermined. It might be nothing definite. It might not be so set ahead that the man might look forward to it. In other words it might simply be the outcome of the good, and

e which one only could attain, and which the others, therefore, would lose, and such a lost prize is, to the average man, for the time at least, a dampener on action. The rewarding of the winner, to the lo

as punished usually received much more than simply the negative return of getting no reward. The days of bodily punishment have long passed, yet the account of the beatings given to

a cutting down of wages, the part d

schar

ess pleasant or le

imply put at something which he dislikes, with no regard as to wh

. He is apt to be so personally interested, and perhaps involved, in the case that his punishment will satisfy some wrong notions, impulse of

personal recognition was probably often utilized, but in no scientific way. Neither was there anything in Traditional Management to develop self-confidence, or to arouse and maintain interest in any set fashion. Naturally, if the man were in a work which he particularly liked, which under Traditional Management was a matter of luck, he would be more or less interested in it, but there was no scientific way of arousing or holding his interest. Under Traditional Management, a man might take pride in his work, as did many of the old bricklayers and masons, who would set themselves apart after hours if necessary, lock themselves in, and cut bricks for a complicated arch or fancy pattern, but su

doing work according to the method prescribed. As standardization takes place, the second bonus for completing the task in the time se

ition grew, self-confidence grew, interest in one's work grew. The Athletic Contest is so conducted that love of speed, love of play

ever been utilized. The constructive force, under Scientific Management, is one of its great life principles. This is brought out very plainly in considering incentives under Scientific Management. With the scientifically determined wage, and the more direct and more sure plan of promotion, comes no discard of the well-grounded incentives of older types of management. The valu

ward. - Rewards, under Sc

finite, positive gain to the man, and not simply a ta

man begins to work it must be determined exact

al, a reward for that particula

exactly what it has been determi

, so that he may be positive that he will get the reward if he does the work. The record of the organiz

t the reward. This promptness applies to the announcement of the reward; that is to say, the man

hich consists of simply providing the worker with such surroundings as will enable him to work decently and without actual discomfort. The worker, naturally, feels that such surroundings are his right, and in no

n the work. There is no shifting of the attention, while the worker wonders what the reward that he is to receive will be. It is a

owards the desire to make the most of one's individuality. It is an aid toward the feeling of personal re

er the fixed reward, but the reward, being fixed, need not be determined anew, over and over again; that is to say, every time that that kind of work is done, simultaneous with the ar

d. In case the man was not sure that he would get the reward in the end, he would naturally spend a great deal of time wondering whether he would

mediately announced and must be actually given very promptly, as it is impossible for anyone of such a type of intellect to look forward very far.2 A man of a high ty

f the normal mind to know exactly where it stands, but also lends a fresh impetus to repeat the high record. There is also, through the prompt reward, the elimination of time wasted in wondering what the result will be, and in allaying suspense. Suspense is not a sti

to follow such a vocation. Men continue to work for those wages that lead positively to certain death, because of the immediateness of the sufficient wages, or reward. This takes their attention from their ultimate end. M

get danger and threatened death, how much more efficient

not to be preferred, because the delayed reward will be greater, or will be available

ricting output has often led the combinations of working men to such restrictio

for the man may have a square deal under Traditional Management in that he may have a fair chance to try for all existing rewards. There is more than this under Scientific

reater financial gain. It is as positive; it is as predetermined, because before the reward to the men is fixed the management realizes what proportion that reward will bear to the entire undertaking, and exactly what profits can be obtained. It is a fundamental of Scientific Management that the management

ution, and thus raises its standing in the eyes of the community as well as in its own eyes; and third, that it leads the entire organization, both managed and managing, to look favorably at all standardization. The standardized reward is sure to be attractive to all m

ure, thus giving the man absolute assurance that he will advance as his work is satisfactory, but it is also gradual.4 The promotion must be by degrees, otherwise the workers may get discouraged, from finding their promotion has come faster than has their ability to achieve, and the lack of attention, due to being discouraged, may be contagious. It is, therefore, of vital importance that the worke

ood" as rapidly as they can prepare themselves for positions over others, and for advancement; but under Scientific Management provision is made even in case the business

on the other hand, it has a very salutary effect upon the men to know that their employers are so disinterestedly interested in them that they will provide for their future, even at the risk of the individual business at which they have started having to lose their se

- Under "Pay" we have i

W

B

orter

s other

ra kno

hod of

opinion

ssional

ement of method, quantity or quality. Both might very properly be included under wages, or under money received for the work, or opportunities for receiving money for work, as the case might be. In the discussion of the different ways o

pause a moment to name the various sorts of methods of compensation recognized by authorities. David F. Schl

ferent kin

ime

iece

ask

gressi

ctive pi

ective

ive progre

ntrac

perati

i

it shar

defined and discussed at length in

ustrial remuneration under the Wages System are time wages, and piece wages. Intermediate between these principal forms, stands that known as task w

oyés are divided into certain classes, and a standard rate of wages is paid to each class of men," He adds - "The men are paid according to the position which they fill, and not according to their indiv

hares in the reward for an extra effort, which goes entirely to his employer. "Reward," in this case, is usually simply a living wage,

foreman being inspired, of course, by a reward for the extra output, but, as Dr. Taylor says, paragraph 17 - "A Piece Rate System," this sort of speeding up is absolutely lacking in s

f work which he accomplishes. Under this system, as long as the man is paid a proper piece rate, and a rate high enough to keep him interested, he will have great inducements to work. He w

is properly laid out, and the price per piece is properly determined, he is given a "square deal" in being allowed t

has been cut once or twice, - and it is sure to be cut unless it has been set from scientifically derived elementary time units, - the man loses his entire confidence in the stability of the rate, and, naturally, when he loses this confidence, his work is done more slowly, due to lack of further enthusiasm. On the contrary, as long as it is to his advantage to do the work and he is sure that his reward will be

or by a definite sum. If the task were set scientifically, and the time scientifically determined, as it must naturally be for a scientific task, and the wage adequate for that work, there would seem to be nothing about this form of remuneration which could be a cause of dissatisf

used, on works which are attempting to operate under Scientific Management. Whether they really are scientific methods of compensation or not, is determined by the way that they are handled. Certainly, however, all that any of these three can expect t

s we will follow the order, at least for a time, of Dr.

; in the second place that we are following the Scientific Management side in distinction to the general economic side, laid down b

fessional paper No. 341, in 1888 and also in the Premium Plan, Mr. Halsey's modification of it, described by him in a paper entitled the "Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1891, Paper 449. In this, in describing

them, we may take these on Mr. Halsey's authority and discuss the psychology of them. If the workmen are given a share in what they do not earn, they have absolutely no feeling that they are being treated justly. This extra reward which is given to them, if in the nature of a present, might much better be a present out and out. If it has no scientific relation to what they have gotten, if the workmen share regardless of individual deserts, this, as Dr. Taylor says, parag

nd the workman, in addition to his usual daily wages, is offered a premium for every hour by which he reduces that time on future work, the amount of the premi

his Plan. - Dr. Taylor commen

still paid his same wages per hour for the time he works on the job, and, in addition, is given a premium for having worked faster, consisting of from one-quarter to one-half the differenc

ly what is going to happen. Not being able to predict, they are unable to devote their entire attention to the work in hand, and the result cannot be as satisfactory as under

sharing," which, in its extreme form, usually means the sharing of the profits from the business as a whole, among the men who do the work. This is further discussed b

re advantage of individuality, and of personal recognition, is omitted. If the reward is remote, we recognize that its power diminishes very rapidly; and if there cannot be equitable division of the profits, not only will the men ultimately not be satisfied, but they will, after a short time, not even be satisfied while they are working, because their minds will constantly be distracted

fic Management embodies the valuable elements of profit-sharing, namely, the

s" of increased efficiency, unless he gets a proportionately increased rate of pay. It should, therefore, be early made clear to him that the saving has been caused by the actions of the management, quite as much as by the increased efforts for productivity of the men. Furthermore, a part

avings must go to the employer, about one third to the employés, and the re

hat results from a co?perative, profit-s

task, as laid down by Dr. Taylor; that is to say, upon time study, and an

ledged by all thoroughly grounded in Scientific Management to be the ultimate form of compensation where it can be use

be done in a day. Under the differential rate system, if a workman finishes 20 pieces per day, and all of these pieces are perfect, he receives, say, 15 cents per piece, making his pay for the day 15 times 20 = $3.00. If, however, he works too slowly and turns out only, say 19 pieces, then instead of receiving 15 cents per piece he

ation for a small amount of work - and under this system the minimum compensation is a little below the regular day's work - may lead men to exe

H.L. Gantt, is explained in "A Bonus System of Rewarding Labor," paper 923, read before the American So

day rate which he always gets. If, however, at the end of the day he has failed to accomplish all of the work laid out, he does not get his bonus, but simply his day rate." T

ning his bonus or not. In the last analysis, it is "day rate" for the unskilled, and "piece rate" for the skilled, and it naturally leads to a feeling of security in the worker. Mr. Gantt has so admirably exp

mpensation is the invention of Mr. Frederick A. Parkhurst, and is de

. The bonus is then added above the day work line. No bonus is paid until a defini

o work receive until they can try themselves out; of a middle rate, which is given to the man when he accomplishes the work with exactness of compliance to prescribed motions, according to the requirements of his ins

bed methods required accurately. The first extra reward is naturally a stimulus toward winning the second extra reward. The middle rate is a stimulus to endeavor to perform that method which will enable him easiest to ac

hat of the task, he receives a differential rate piece on the excess quantity,

m standard; it may be upon the supervision, or some fault of the management in not supplying the material in the proper quality, or sequence, or a bad condition of tools or machinery; or upon the instruction card. The fact that the missing of the bonus is investigated is an added assurance to the workman t

rial to pass through his hands, defective or imperfect as the case might be. This is very closely associated with the second reason, and that is, that the bonus comes from the savings caused by the plan of management, and that it is necessary that the workers as well as the management shall see that everything possible tends to increase the saving. It is o

all these systems. In many works more than one, in some all, of these systems of payment may be in use. Far from this resulting in confusion, it simply leads to the understanding that whatever is best in the particular situation should

case where children working were obliged to turn their entire pay envelopes over to their parents. To them, there was no particular incentive in getting more money, but, when the task was assigned, if they were allowed to go as soon as their task was completed, the output was accomplished in a great deal shorter time. Ano

or incentives. How successful they would be, depends largely upon the temperament of the man and the sort of work that is to be done. In all classes of society, among all sorts of people, there is the type that l

workers are forced by their coworkers to try to earn their bonuses, as "falling

hat man to make better speed. For example, on a certain construction job in Canada, the teamsters were shown that, by their work, they wer

igence only. They will, in a way, be appreciated by all, because it will be realized that, through what is learned, more pay or promotion is received, but the fact that this extra knowledge, and better meth

assures such admiration by his fellow-workers as will serve as an incentive toward further success, so the profession

sure of efficiency, its close relationship to professional standing will be recogn

shments, especially in cases of men who have once had the reward, usually will act as the necessary stimulus to further activ

way for the benefit of the men themselves. All fines should be used for some benefit fund, or turned into the insurance fund. The fines, as has been said, are determined solely by the disciplinarian, who is disinterested in the disposition of the funds thus collected. As the fines do not in any way benefit the management, and in fact rather hurt the management in that the men who pay them, no

do not show on the surface, The man may not really get a cut in pay, though his work be changed, and thus the damage he receives is in no wise to his purse,

ientific Management than under any other sort, because if a man is possibly available, and in any way trained, it is better to do almost anything to teach him, to assign

dge, who has been most successful in Scientific Management and is noted for his good work for his fellow-men, eloquently pleads, in a paper on "The S

me and wages. Proper management takes account not only of this fact, but also of the fact that there is a distinct loss to the employer when an old and experienced employé is replaced by a new man, who must be educated in the methods of the establishment.

r or more is 'no good' is often a reflection on the foreman, and more often still, is wholly untrue. All working men, unless they develop intemperate o

. If there is no negative side, the beauty of the reward will never be realized; the man who has once suffered by having his pay cut for something which he has done wrong, will be more than ready to keep up to the standard. In the second place, unless individuals are punished, the rights of other individuals will, necessarily, be encroached upon. When it is consi

the direct incentives, these are so many that it

machine, not so much for the love of the activity as for a love of seeing things progress rapidly. There is a love of contest

ic Management to bar out any contests which would not be for the ultimate harm of the workers. Such interference would hamper individuality; would make the workers feel that they were restricted and held down. While the workers are, under Scientific Management, supposed to be under the supervision of some one who can see that the work is only such as they c

elf-confidence, pugnacity, - all the "native reactio

ery nature, to increase output. When Scientific Management is introduced, there is selection of suc

iven by the incentive. This results in bodily exhaustion. So, also, the anxiety that accompanies an unstandardized incentive leads to mental exhaustion. With the introduction

by removing sources of worry, waste and hesitation, partly by determining the ratio of incent

, Cost Analysis E

per 647, A.S.M.E.,

ory Organization and

ge, Paper 1115,

nagement, para. 310-311,

15. For an extended and excellent account of the theory of well-known methods of com

PTE

LF

rom evil;" in other words, well-being. This is the primary meaning of the word. But, to-day, it is used so often as an adjective, to des

included. "Welfare" under each form of management will be discussed, first, as meaning the outcome to the men of the t

scussion of welfare as the result of work divides it

fect upon the

ffect upon th

ffect upon th

ere is not a definite physical improvement in the average worker. In the first place, there is no provision for regularity in the work. The planning not being done ahead, the man has absolutely no way of knowing exactly what he will be called upon to do. There being no measure of fatigue, he has no means of knowing whether he

physically; this liking may come through the play element, or through the love of work, or through the love of contest, or through some other desire for activity, but it is not provided for scientifically, and the outcome cannot be exactly predicted. Therefore, under Traditional Management there is no way of knowing that good health and increased strength will result from the work, and we know that in many cases poor health and deplete

ely no way of estimating what the average need in this line would be, it varies so much with the temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be a thing that the man himself was responsible for, and not the management, certainly not the management in any impersonal sense. Some one man over an individual worker might be largely responsible for improving

l responsibilities. Neither was there much development of responsibility for others, in the sense of being responsible for personal development of others. Having no accurate standards to judge by, there was little or no possibility of appreciation of the relative standing of the men, either by the individual of himself, or by others of his ability. The man could be admired for his strength, or his skill, but not for his real efficiency, as measured in any satisfactory way. The management taught self-control in the most

foreman who was all-powerful, and having no assured protection from the whims of such a man, the worker was obliged, practically for self-protection, to try to conciliate the foremen by methods of assuming merits that are obvious, on the surface. He ingratiates himself in the favor of the foreman in that way best adapted to the peculiarities of the character of the foreman, sometimes joining societies, or the church of the foreman, sometimes helping him elect some political candidate or relative; at other times, by the more direct method of buying drinks, or taking up a subscription for presenting the foreman with a gold watch, "in appreciation of his fairness to all;" sometimes by consistently losing at cards or other games of chance. When it is considered that this same foreman was probably, at the time, enjoying a brutal feeling of power, it is no wonder that no sense of confidence of the "square deal" could develop. There are countless ways that the brutal enjoyment of power could be e

" becomes stunted, unless the pay is large enough to lead the man to be willing to undergo abuses in order to get the money. There is nothing, moreover, in the aspect of the

ations for conflict, of which the average union and employers' association is the embodiment, naturally, real capaci

dividuality, - men are handled most

at fundamental of all standardization, which leads to absolute in

teaching; to the lack

trong reason why Traditional Management

lses of the management for the men, and the carrying of these out in a more or less systematic way, it will be true to say that such welfare work has existed in all times, and under all forms of manag

itory Management is constantly changing. In the discussion of the various chapters, and in showing how individuality, functionalization, measurement, and so on, were introduced, and the psychological effect upon the men of their being introduc

es nothing but praise. It is the result of the dedication of many beautiful lives to a beautiful cause. It consists of such work as building rest rooms for the employés, in providing for amusements, in providing for better working

ing. There is, however, a flaw to be found in the underlying principles of this welfare work as introduced in Transitory Management, and that is that it takes on more or less the aspect of a charity, and is so regarded both by the employ

very high type of mind that can be satisfied simply with the doing of the good act, without the return of gratitude. On the other hand, the employé, if he be a man of pride, may resent charity even in such a general form as this, and may, with an element of rightness, prefer that the money to be expended be put into his pay envelope, inst

ork, is the fact that it often disregards one of the fundamental principles of Scientific Management, in that the welf

oing is undoubtedly benefiting these people in every aspect, not only of their business but of their home lives, but it is also true that should she be obliged to give up the work, or be

ntific Management. - Under Scientific Manag

physical improvement. This we sh

ularity of

hab

cal deve

ularity of the

rest time are scientifically apportioned. This means that the man is able to come to each t

pon which the instruction cards are based, and

. Every time that identical work is d

an excellent effect upon the

der Scientifi

he man, the motions that are used, having all been timed and then

te but come actually and promptly into the co

and because the rewards which are given for using t

ossibilities are studied, before he is put into the work; therefore, his own individuality and his own particular function natu

ical de

lized as far as possible; the same is true of the love of work, which is re?nforced b

t by the constant contest of the worker with his own previous records. When he does exceed these

entific managers testify. An excellent example of this is found in Mr. Gantt's "Work, Wages and Profits," where the increased health, the better color and the better general appearance of

t is provided for by Mental Development. This we may dis

abits we mu

an the work required be properly performed, and the reward received. As only those who show themselves capable of really receiving the rew

ily, but also has the broadening effect of teaching him how to do other things, i.e., showing him the "how" of d

fic Management. This is so presented to the worker that it becomes actually usable at once. This not only allows him to judge others, but provides for self-knowledge, which is one of the most valuable

der in

eper i

ed mental c

any subject taken up is in its ultimate final unit form, would certainly lead to deeper

under Scientific Management results fro

al respon

sibility

iation of

lf-co

quare

sponsibility i

ties upon others. When he knows that he is regarded by the management, and by his mates, as an individual, that what he does will

s being expected to fill out his own instruction card. In this way

f the regard of his fellow-workers; therefore, being a growing thing, as it is under Scientific Management, it insures that h

n he realizes that there are eight functional bosses over him, who are closely related to him, on whom he is dependent, and who are more or less dependent upon him. The very fact that the planning is separated from the performing, means that more men are directly interested in any one piece of work; in fact, that every individual piece of work that is done is in some way a bond between a great number of men, som

n of standing

individual himself knows what he has done,

t make the comparison, exactly how each worker stands, with

n, for it isn't respectable not to. The man or woman who ignores fashion does not get much pleasure from associating with those that follow it, and the new member consequently tries

ntrol is d

e formed, necessarily many wrong habits are eliminated. It becomes a part of Scientific Management to inhi

ic Management gives, which allow the man to hold himself w

quare deal," in that the tasks assigned are of the proper size, and that the reward that is given is of the proper dimensions, and is assured. This ha

Brotherhood and the "Will To Do". - The

onte

roth

will t

ibility, the appreciation of standing, and the general

n to take his place before he can be advanced. Thus it comes about that the old caste life, which so often grew up under Traditional Management, becomes abolished, and there ensues a feeling that it is possible for any man to grow

ven every incentive, but he, personally, becomes inspired with this great desire for activ

hat the mind and the body must be studied together, 5 and that this is particularly true in considering the mind in management. 6 For the best results of

say, unless the mind is kept in the right state, with the elimination of worry, the body cannot do its best work, and, in the same way, unless the body is kept up to the proper standard

ult of all this physical improvement, mental development and moral development is increase

t there is no necessity for a special welfare worker. This is not to say that the value of personality will disappear under Scientific Management, and that it may not be necessary in some cases to provide for nurses, for physical directors, and for advisers. It will, however, be understood that the entire footing of these people is changed under Scientific Managemen

MM

plished, with only such expenditure of effort as is beneficial to the worker. Not only does the amount of

power to develop himself there; that it furnishes him with a broader outlook, and, best of all, with a capacity of judging for himself what he needs most to get. In other words, if Scientific Management is what it claims to be, it leads to the development of a fuller life in every sense of the word, enabling the man to become a better individual in himself, and a better member of his community. If it does not do this it is not truly Scientific Management. Miss Edith Wyatt has said, very beautifully, at the close of her book, "Mak

f Scientific Management is right, and, as Miss Wyatt says, is but

Scientific Management justify a prediction as t

o the point where workers will

the cause of In

ds. This it must do, as it is founded on co?peration, and thi

nderstand the rights of others as well as

ost wasteful of all warfare - Industrial Warfare. Such will be the future of Scientific Managem

and enjoyed, depends on both the managers and the workers of the country; but, in the las

ny roads that lead to progress. This road leads straightest and surest, - and we can but hope that the workers of all lands, and of our

rk, Wages and Prof

p. 17

ork, Wages and Pr

Management, para. 17

ychology, Advanced Co

Travail d'un Ouvrier Avant et Apres un Accident; Les Methodes du Labora

Wyatt, Macmill

N

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"Economy of Manufac

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First Book in Psych

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n No. 5 Carnegie Found

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to incen

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descriptio

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Bonus, descri

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James M

o Paper 1119 A

managem

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time and moti

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London, Sept

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eliminati

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Paper No.

d Profits," 24,

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Study," 4

"A.S.E.C. Paper

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t Keeping and Management

definitio

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